Books & manuscripts, prints

Bookmarks of Russian nobility

One of the most prominent collectors A. Felkersam made more than 40 ex-librises. Y. Ivask and M. Grunwald, who made 30 and 16 bookmarks respectively, are also worth mentioning.

Collecting of ex-librises proves to be interesting from the historical point of view primarily, as these drawing works reflect different historical periods. Besides, a collection of bookmarks arranged in chronological order, by countries and artists perfectly illustrates all stages of drawing-art development. First of all, let us recall the history of Russian bookmarks. The authors of this article aim to remind the readers about the landmarks of ex-libris▓ history and hope to awaken interest to these unpretentious works of art.

Bookmarks differ from country to country, as they reflect the unique traits of each nation, its cultural peculiarities and mentality. In Russia of XVII century or earlier the ownership of a book was attributed by the inscription made by its possessor. For example, ╚this book belongs to Rodion Sidorov, sinful and unrighteous╩.

Besides, one could find information about the owner of a book with the help of the so called ╚put in notes╩. In order to find salvation, many people used to donate books, which were quite valuable items, to monasteries and churches. Name of a donator was written down in the book which he offered, and that inscription was called the ╚put in note╩. Those ╚put in notes╩ usually ended with summoning the ╚God▓s wrath╩ on the thieves. They provided protection and thus, acted as a prototype of ex-libris.

The first researcher of Russian bookmarks V. Vereschagin wrote that such offerings to God as ╚put in notes╩ were very typical for Russian medieval culture and exactly reflected the Old Russian world outlook. Eventually, ex-librises plainly decorated by a patterned border, on the model of the Western Europe, appeared in Russia too. The majority of Russian library owners of XVIII√XIX centuries used to deal with simple labels, designating ╚library╩, ╚ex-bibliotheca╩ or ╚book collection╩ of a certain book holder. The bookmark of count D. Golitsyn with an inscription ╚Ex-bibliotheca Arcangelina╩ (the name of his renowned patrimony estate Arkhangelskoe) is considered to be the first Russian ex-libris, as Vereschagin states. The bookmark was created in early1700s. But another Russian bookmark researcher Y. Ivask believes the ex-libris of Lithlandian prefect, count Constantin Plater (later, the Chancellor of Lithuanian Grand Princedom) to be the first Russian bookmark. However, the question is whether we can call the ex-libris of the German nobleman on Russian service the ╚first Russian╩ bookmark?

Speaking about the first Russian bookmarks, we should name the engraved ex-libris of count Y. Bruce, one of the first book collectors and the owner of 1500 rare books. Starting from the Bruce▓s ex-libris, we will try to trace all the stages of heraldic bookmarks history. The first half of the XVIII century was the time of active formation of public and personal self-consciousness.Ex-libris acted as a ╚twin╩ of its owner, informing people about the noble status of its possessor. Thus, the majority of the first half of the XVIII century bookmarks bore heraldic character; i. e. they just copied family coats of arms. The coat of arms, given to Bruce together with the inherited noble status in 1721, and an element of the Order of St. Andrew are depicted in the engraved Bruce▓s ex-libris. Y. Bruce was awarded with the order after the Poltava battle in 1709. There is a motto ╚Fuimus╩ in his coat of arms, that means ╚Let us be╩.

In the second half of the XVIII century that tradition slightly changed. Bookmarks did not bluntly copy coats of arms, but allowed some variations and also offered more freedom in arranging of heraldic symbols in the composition. Ex-librises of A. Lanskoi and super ex-librises of I. Shuvalov can serve as good examples of that trend. There are no chargers in Lanskoi▓s coat of arms but one can see a fallow deer (family animal of count Lanskoi) on the right side of his ex-libris acting as a charger. Two fallow deers are also depicted in the fields of the shield. Free compositional rendering can be traced in I. Shuvalov▓s ex-libris too. Here we present two of his super ex-librises. Baroque monogram ╚Sh╩ below the count crown is depicted in one of them. The other one is heraldic ex-libris, placed on the back side of a book cover. There is an eye-catching figure of a unicorn in the centre of a composition. The chargers depicted in the coat of arms differ from the ones in the super ex-libris. A unicorn and a dragon acting as the chargers in Shuvalov▓s coat of arms, are replaced in the ex-libris by a gryphon, holding a sword, and a lion. A gryphon (a lion with a head of an eagle) symbolizes the lion▓s might, and the keen sight of an eagle and is considered to be the treasure keeper. In this very case the gryphon acts as a book guard; the lion is a traditional symbol of might, valour and nobleness.

At the end of the XVIII, during XIX and even at the beginning of the XX century despite the ╚free approach╩ to interpretation of coats of arms in ex-librises, bookmarks, representing the exact copies of the original coats of arms still existed. To illustrate that trend we can mention the ex-libres of artillery general, the member of the State Council A. Arakcheev, the ex-libris of Imperial Hermitage superintendent count D. Buturlin, and the one of St. Petersburg governor count N. Levashov. The Levashov coat of arms looks like a shield divided in four parts, with a lesser shield in the center. The state two-headed eagle with a monogram of Nikolai I on its chest is depicted in the lesser shield (it was Nikolai I who awarded the Levashov family with the inherited noble status). The armorial shield is topped with surmounted by the count▓s crown with three helmets above it. A leopard on the right and a guard-hussar on the left act as the chargers. Below there is a motto ╚Virtuti et honori╩ ≈ ╚Valour and honour╩.

The modified version of the family coat of arms is represented in count S. Vorontsov▓s ex-libris. A shield in a double oval crowned by Russian prince▓s corona is depicted in the ex-libris. At the foot of the shield there is a motto ╚Semper immota fides╩ ≈ ╚Unswerving loyalty forever╩. The shield is horizontally divided in two parts. In the upper part there is a chevron with three pomegranates and three stars around it. The lower part of the shield is divided diagonally in two fields from the upper right to the lower left corner; there are two roses and a lily between them on the diagonal stripe. Between the ovals there is an inscription: ╚Book collection of count Vorontsov. St. Petersburg house╩.

The coat of arms of the renowned public figure, publisher, patron of arts and bibliographer duke S. Sheremetev is similarly altered in his ex-libris. The Sheremetevs belonged to the so called ╚visitant╩ families. One of the Prussian rulers entered the service of Russian Grand Dukes and settled in Russia. His descendants served as military leaders and boyars at the Russian Court. Inside the border of the ex-libris there is an oval with an image of lions holding a shield. A crown in the shield, a globe and a sword in lion▓s paws inform about the Prussian noble origin of the Sheremetev family. Long ago, the ancestors of the coat of arms owners were heathens and used to worship the sacred oak, which was particularly revered in the pagan Prussia. The oak tree above the shield signifies that. In the upper part of the shield there is royal crown and four quadrangular crosses below it. Sometimes, crosses are interpreted as the symbol of conversion of Prussians to Christianity. There is a motto inside the oval ╚Deus conservat omnia╩ ≈ ╚God preserves everything╩.

The main difference of the majority of old Russian bookmarks from their West-European analogues lay in the role of decor. In Russian ex-librises the depiction of a coat of arms was of primary importance, and decorative elements were added seldom. Development of book publishing industry, intensive growth of private printing houses and educating activities of Catherine II resulted in increased number of readers and book buyers and, correspondingly, in increased number of bookmarks. Ex-librises representing monograms decorated with flowers and different patterns were very popular at that period. Library interiors were depicted in bookmarks less frequently. Still, heraldic ex-librises of duke S. Golitsyn, count Benkendorf, F. Shubert, baron G. Stroganov, P. Sukhtelen, are considered to be the best Old Russian bookmarks.

After invention of book printing ex-librises were stamped on book covers. Such bookmarks were called super ex-librises. The image of the State symbols stamped on the cover of the first printed edition of Ivan Fedorov▓s ╚Apostle╩, which belonged to Ivan the Terrible is believed to be the first Russian super ex-libris. Only few super ex-librises of that period represented heraldic image of coats of arms; the major part of them looked like monograms with crowns. The super ex-libris of I. Shuvalov and the one of count P. Sheremetev are considered to be the oldest Russian private super ex-librises. Creation of super ex-librises did not become popular in Russia because of their high cost; that is why they practically disappeared from the book market after the innovation of printed bookmarks. In XIX√XX centuries Russian bookmarks continued to develop the West-European tradition.

We owe to A. Felkersam the number of quite interesting ex-librises. Some of them traditionally copy coats of arms; other represent stylized interpretation and include decorative elements. A. Felkersam also executed drawings of bookmarks for Nikolai II and the heir to the throne Alexei (refer to the publication in ╧28 ╚Antique.Info╩ magazine). Those drawings were executed in strict heraldic style as well as works by G. Narbut and G. Lukomsky.

At the turn of XIX√XX centuries the interest to ex-libris continued to grow. First Association of bookmark fans was founded in Moscow in 1905. After its closing in 1907, two new public organizations were established: ╚Moscow association of bookmark fans╩ and ╚Russian association of book friends╩. They provided exchange of bookmarks between ex-libris fans, published subject books and held auctions and exhibitions.

Russian bookmarks were widely presented for the first time at the ╚Book and Poster Art╩ exhibition, organized by the National Congress of Artists in 1912. We know two public collections of bookmarks that existed in 1919: the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts collection, containing 2500 ex-librises, mainly of foreign origin, donated by baron A. Felkersam, and the collection donated by Y. Ivask, located in the Moscow Archeological Institute.

The first known sale of an ex-libris▓ occurred at the book auction, conducted by the ╚Association of book friends╩. The first specialized exhibition of Russian bookmarks including items from the major collection of Ernest Jurgenson and other Petersburg collectors, took place at the Artistic and Scientific Expertise Institute in 1919.